Applied Managerial Marketing- Phase 1 DB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Applied Managerial Marketing-Phase 1 DB - Essay Example lly-significant crusades, for example, Give Your Two Cents Worth idea as a major aspect of its Childrens Safe Drinking Water battle and the recently presented Pampersâ ® Tetanus Vaccination Campaign in participation with UNICEF. The public statement discusses P&G to expand financing and extension for its Live, Learn and Thriveâ„ ¢ association with the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI). When seen from a bigger point of view, the official statement is one of the instruments in P&G’s coordinated advertising interchanges blend, under Public Relations. The correspondences procedure utilized for this situation is ‘affective strategy’â€mentioned by Pickton and Broderick as received from the innovative techniques recognized by Patti and Frazer, (2002, p. 424) that â€Å"invokes contribution and emotion†¦ [And] Not as a rule related with ‘selling’ emphasis†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The public statement entitled â€Å"New Water Purification Product from Reliance Products and Procter and Gamble now Available in Retail Stores† dated last February 14 is about another item presentation by Reliance Products, L.P. what's more, P&G- - PUR Purifier of Water innovation, a powdered water clarifier and disinfectant intended for outside amusement and crisis readiness use. The official statement serves to acquaint the item with general society by teaching the majority about its benefitsâ€it gives clean drinking water requiring little to no effort per liter, and can be bought in complete water treatment units, or as extra substitution treatment packs. The public statement has been utilized, in incorporation with the other showcasing correspondences components, for example, deals advancements. As opposed to the past public statement referenced, this one uses a ‘informational strategy’ as recognized by Pickton and Broderick (2002, p. 426), which essen tial point is to instruct and offer subtleties to pass on snippets of data. While a public statement is only one of the apparatuses which point is to work in congruity with different components of the coordinated correspondences blend of an organization, P&G has been

Built of separate "episodes"

Worked of independent scenes Essay Eric admits that he had got the young lady pregnant and further more that he had taken cash from his dads firm to provide for her. Be that as it may, in the wake of finding out about his moms late contribution with the young lady he rapidly censures her for the demise of Eva Smith and her unborn kid. The family are totally stunned and embarrassed about themselves. At last, the Inspector gives a discourse about social duties, as though straightforwardly offering an explanation to Mr. Birlings discourse prior at night. He at that point leaves. Progressively, Mr. Birling understands that the man couldn't have been a genuine police investigator. They additionally understand that they may have not all been discussing a similar young lady or truth be told, regardless of whether any young lady had really ended it all. This is affirmed by a phone to the hospital. The family feel alleviated to hear this despite the fact that Sheila and Eric appear to have been affected emphatically by the night. The others reestablish trust in themselves and their activities. Now the phone rings and reports that a young lady had only passed on in the clinic and an overseer is en route to make requests with respect to her demise. In this play Priestley utilizes emotional methods and makes a bluff holder. This is finished by each demonstration finishing leaving the crowd to think about what will occur straightaway. For instance the principal demonstration leaves the crowd inquisitive concerning how Gerald was associated with daisy Renton. The subsequent demonstration leaves the crowd to acknowledge Erics contribution with Eva Smith and miracle what will occur between the finish of Geralds issue with the young lady and Mrs. Birlings meeting with her. The third and closing act despite everything leaves the crowd to consider what will occur straightaway. The call toward the end revived the subject of the Inspectors character. It likewise leaves the crowd pondering whether it will be a similar investigator who comes to address them and how occasions will advance this time around. The plot permits the activity to stream easily and persistently making a feeling of time and spot. This is so all through the three demonstrations where the following demonstration would begin at a similar point where the past demonstration had wrapped up. The play is worked of independent scenes where each character plays the lead job. Likewise, all activities and talks spoke to something or were accomplished which is as it should be. Indeed, even the entering and leaving of each character permitted new parts of the plot to be presented or created. For instance, Geralds choice to take a walk permits him to change the course of occasions after the examiners flight. Additionally, Erics nonattendance permits his inclusion with daisy Renton and his drinking issue to be investigated in a manner that would not be conceivable by his quality. The Inspectors specific utilization of the journal and photo permits the crowd to know Eva Smiths request of occasions in the two years. Each part fits together like a jigsaw puzzle permitting the crowd to comprehend Eva smiths sentiments and encourages the crowd to anticipate what will occur in the third demonstration.

Blog Archive MBA News mbaMission Founder Discusses Wharton Application Drop with WSJ

Blog Archive MBA News mbaMission Founder Discusses Wharton Application Drop with WSJ With a 12% drop in application volume over the past four years (a 5.8% drop in the past year alone), is the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School losing its luster? A Wall Street Journal article published last week quotes mbaMissions founder and president, Jeremy Shinewald, speaking on the apparent decline in Wharton applicants: “We’re hearing [applicants say] Stanford, Harvard or nothing. It used to be Stanford or Wharton.” Following the financial crisis, some experts claim that Whartonâ€"often pigeonholed as a finance schoolâ€"“didn’t react aggressively enough when the spigot of finance jobs was turned off.” Others have cited the frequent turnover of admissions directors at the school and questioned whether adding a group discussion component to the application process has intimidated would-be applicants. In defense, Ankur Kumar, Wharton’s director of MBA admissions and financial aid, says, “Our focus is on the quality of our applicant population, and that remains as high as ever.” Wharton has responded to the downslide by scaling up its efforts to appeal to applicants interested in industries beyond finance, such as entrepreneurship, retail and real estate. Despite receiving fewer applications, Wharton saw its average GMAT score actually rise to a record 725 this yearâ€"perhaps suggesting that even if the school has lost some of its luster, its selectivity remains intact. Share ThisTweet News University of Pennsylvania (Wharton)

Speech Speech Polarity Detection - 3602 Words

Title Speech Polarity Detection submitted by Yadav Swati Satyadev IU1351070011 supervised by Hemant A. Patil ASOCIATE PROFESSOR Thesis Submitted to Indus University Master of Technology DIGITAL COMMUNICATION INDUS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY RANCHARDA, AHMEDABAD Certificate Acknowledgements I would like to express my deep sense of respect and gratitude towards my guide Dr. Hemant. A. Patil who has been the guiding force behind this project. I want to thank him for giving me the opportunity to work under him. I consider it my good fortune to have got an opportunity to work with such a wonderful person. Without his experience and insights it would have been very difficult for quality work. I am deeply indebted to my guide Prof. Vrushank Shah for his constant motivation. I am also thankful to the authors whose works I have consulted and quoted in this work. My affectionate thanks are due to my family and my seniors at DA-IICT who made me able to do such work. SWATI YADAV (IU1351070011) List of Figures Figure 1: Glottal flow with its Derivative Adapted from [B1] 1 Figure 2: Speech Production Model. Adapted from [B1] 3 Figure 3: Framework of speech polarity detection [4] 8 Figure 4: Algorithm of Iterative Adaptive Inverse Filtering [8] 10 Figure 5: (a) original speech signal, (b) negative polarity speech signal 12 Figure 6: (a) glottal wave of positive speech signal,Show MoreRelatedThe And Information Centric View Of Text Analysis970 Words   |  4 Pages2008; Cummins et al.2010). Opinion mining is growing area as people are sharing their views, opinions experiences online. Automatic detection and analysis of opinions around products, brands, political issues etc. is a challenging task. An opinion lexicon is a list of opinion expressions or set of adjectives, which are used to indicate opinion/sentiment polarity like positive, negative and neutral. These lexicons were grown by synonyms in WordNet. Using antonyms in WordNet itself other set of lexiconsRead MoreResearch Frameworks Used For Mining And Summarization Are Been Search By People For Gathering The More And More Information Essay1701 Words   |  7 PagesSenelf [10], derived the latent information and gives a multimodal interface for review scanning and inquiring. Latent information used develop a speech based multimodal interface which grant user to not only inquire about the drugs but also browse a big centralized database of reviews. In this paper, spoken dialogue system involves three methods: Spe ech processing, Language understanding and dialogue management. Author also provides the valuation of dialogue system. Carolin Kaiser, Freimut BodendorfRead MoreThe Importance Of Textual Technology907 Words   |  4 Pagestokens; the average length of the article is 1126 code. This group will be available on the CLiPS website (www.clips.uantwerpen.be/datasets). They can be freely used for academic research purposes. The first phishing detection experiment was conducted on this data. Deception detection is the task of automatically classifying text as either trustful or deceptive, in our case by studying the writing method of the author. This task has never been investigated for Dutch before. They performed a supervisedRead MoreSurvey On Sentiment Analysis And Opinion Mining2689 Words   |  11 PagesSentiment140 available on â€Å"http://help.sentiment140.com/for-students/† is twitter datasets available for researchers. The data is automatically extracted by using positiv e and negative emoticons using Twitter Search API. The data consists of six fields- polarity, tweet id, tweet date, the query, user name, and text of the tweet. Facebook dataset is available on- https://lindat.mff.cuni.cz/repository/xmlui/handle/11858/00-097C-0000-0022-FE82-7. This corpus consisting of 10,000 manually annotated FacebookRead MoreLocation Based Sentiment Analysis Of Twitter Data: A Literature2234 Words   |  9 Pagesthat Sentiment analysis is a technique used for categorization of the product based on the reviews of the user. The categories of the product are good, bad or neutral. In this paper, the general problem of the sentiment polarity categorization has been resolved. The sentiment polarity categorization consists of two phases: sentence level categorization and review level categorization. The sentence level categorization reveals the positive or the negative sentiments whereas the review level categorizationRead MoreNatural Language Processing ( Nlp )7704 Words   |  31 Pagesthan surveys or focus groups, if this kind of information is indentified in a systematic way. The technique to detect and extract subjective information in text documents is opinion mining and sentiment analysis. In general, the overall contextual polarity or sentiment of a writer about some aspect can be determined using sentiment analysis. The main challenge in this area is the sentiment classification in which the sentiment may be a judgment, mood or evaluation of an object namely film, book, productRead MoreOutline And Outline Of A Letter9612 Words   |  39 Pagesthere is detection or produces a normal result. When the muscles are contracted action potential appear on the screen of oscilloscope. The muscle contraction increased as increased the action potential of the muscle. Figure 1.24 Normal result 2. Abnormal results : in the abnormal results the human body in the rest position the tissues of the muscles are electrically active. Such that in the rest position there is the detection of the abnormalRead MoreRole Of Social Media Within The Online Community2694 Words   |  11 Pageseruption of user generated data in online discussion forums and reviews and most especially social media. According to Pang and Lee (2008), the research of sentiment analysis can be broadly classified into two main areas: research investigating the polarity of subjective text and research evaluating the objectivity of subjectivity of textual entities. The following section provides a literature review on the role of social media within the online community. Next, an overview of sentiment analysis isRead MoreIgbo Dictionary129408 Words   |  518 Pages.......................................................................... 14 6. Grammatical sketch .................................................................................................................................. 15 6.1 Parts of speech ..................................................................................................................................... 15 6.2 Verbs....................................................................................................

Aristotle s Views On Friendship - 890 Words

According to Aristotle s views on friendships he believes that friendship is necessary to live a good life, inspires us to be virtuous, and is a kind of love. Aristotle also believes friendships help people predispose their character and keeps the youth away from errors. Additionally friendship gives support during weakness and helps people be generous and know when they need help. Aristotle views that there are three kinds of friendships, pleasure, utility, and perfect friendships. Pleasure friendships according to Aristotle are typically found in young people. Pleasure friendships are based on the person producing pleasure for the friend. Pleasure friendships tend to end once the person providing the pleasure stops. Utility friendships can be found in young or old people and is based on a person being useful to another. Utility friendships are fulfilling a person s needs and is based on mutual use. Friendships based on utility typically end if the other person stops being useful. T he third friendship is perfect friendship that is found through a state of perfected character. Perfect friendship is motivated by unselfishness and mutual self interest. Friendships that are perfect need to include people that are alike in character, virtue and social station/ equality. Perfect friendships according to Aristotle require time and familiarity. Another requisite is the mastery of self, the friends must know themselves before they know each other. In addition, Aristotle statesShow MoreRelatedAristotle s Views On Friendship1357 Words   |  6 Pagesthat Aristotle attaches importance to friendship within his ethical reflections. It suffices to recall that the Nicomachean Ethics, the most representative of the ethical works of Aristotle, contains two complete books, books VIII and IX, dedicated to friendship. This means that the theme of friendship is given a much wider space than other fundamental ethical issues. However, this breadth in his explanations is not something casual, but rather responds to Aristotle’s belief that friendship is somethingRead MoreAristotle s Philosophy On The View Of Friendship818 Words   |  4 PagesAristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher. Aristotle’s philosophy was his logical concept. Aristotle’s objective was to come up with a universal process of reasoning that would allow man to learn every imaginable thing about reality. He wrote on a vast amount of subjects during his lifetime, such as biology, chemistry, physics, ethics and logic. Aristotle wrote a book called, Nicomachean Ethics. This book describes the view of friendship. He also describes three different type of friendship, whichRead MoreConfessions By Saint Augustine And The Nicomachean Ethics1271 Words   |  6 PagesThe Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle the theme of friendship is constantly portrayed. Each philosopher has his own respected thoughts and opinions about the dif ferent aspects of friendship. This paper will argue both the similarities and differences between Aristotle and Saint Augustine’s argument about the role of friendship. In The Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle argues that friendship is the greatest of external goods which is necessary to live a pleasant life. Aristotle then proceeds to defineRead MoreA Curiosity Of Benefits And Self Love1463 Words   |  6 PagesBenefits and Self-Love in Friendships Reading Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, it is tempting to conclude that Aristotle provides clear explanation about the benefits of friendship and the idea of self-love. Throughout his examples of friendship, Aristotle supports his assumptions with evidence and real-world situations. His arguments about self-love and benefits from having friends seem clear and understandable to the reader. However, Aristotle unsuccessfully explains why friendship is primarily about activityRead MoreHistorical Events That Took Place During The Classical Period1458 Words   |  6 PagesWorld Literature I Historically Significant Influences of Aristotle During the Classical Period, 500-232 BCE, Greece was at the peak of its political and cultural achievement. This was also a time of war, most noteworthy being the vast empire created by Alexander the Great. In a period containing such an immense amount of historical significance there is no doubting that it had influenced the people born. Notorious philosopher Aristotle is no exception, contributing a great deal to the fields ofRead MoreFootball And Aristotle s Philosophy Of Friendship880 Words   |  4 Pages Friendships are a main aspect of what we seek for in life, for Aristotle says that â€Å"without friends, no one would choose to live,† (Football and Aristotle s Philosophy of Friendship, Pg 32). Through excerpts from Gallagher’s â€Å"Football and Aristotle s Philosophy of Friendship†, McMahon’s â€Å"Seinfeld Subjectivity, and Sartre,† Condella’s â€Å"Why can’t we be virtual friends,† and finally Thalos’ â€Å"Why I am not a friend,† we can determine the reasons why we hold friendships so dearly to us. In Gallagher’sRead MoreAristotle s Book Viii By Setting Some Ground Work On Friendship1198 Words   |  5 PagesAristotle begins book VIII by setting some ground work on friendship. Aristotle explains that friendship is something that is â€Å" indispensable for life.† Not one person chooses to not have friends, therefore, it something that involves everyone. He later goes in depth on the fact that there are three categories of friendship: useful, pleasure, and goodness. Useful friendship is when each individual has a benefit from the other. In the case of pleasure friendship, each person in the relationship areRead MoreAristotle : Aristotle And The Moral Values Of Aristotle1725 Words   |  7 PagesAristotle; born in 384 BCE, in Stagira, Chalcidice, Greece, was a philosopher and a great scientist during the ancient Greek era. His range of vast knowledge included the majority of both art and science which are biology, botany, chemistry, ethics, metaphysics, history, logic, philosophy of science, rhetoric, philosophy of the mind, poetics, psychology, physics, zoology and political theory. Aristotle’s understanding of moral virtues is that it stands between the great divide of a set of characteristicsRead MoreEssay When Souls Intertwine1641 Words   |  7 Pagesfriends† (Aristotle 4). Aristotle is saying that in order for someone to be happy you must have not only friends, but virtuous friends. Virtuous friends are your true friends. What is true friendship? How do you know when someone is not only your friend, but your true friend? Some may say that a true friend is loyal, honest, and cares for you, someone who would die for you. Some may agree with Aristotles view of friendship. He classifies friendship into three categories: Read MoreSimilarities Between Confucius And Confucius1391 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Concept of Friendship according to Aristotle and Confucius. Confucius and Aristotle both examined the concept of friendship. Since they lived in vastly different societies, one would expect that their concepts would be dissimilar. Surprisingly they are also similarities. The two traditions’ thoughts on friendship are from two perspectives, virtue and trustworthiness. There are some similarities between Aristotle and Confucius on the concept of friendship. Both viewed friendship as virtuous and

Mill vs. Bentham - 2787 Words

In what ways did John Stuart Mills version of utilitarianism differ from that of Jeremy Bentham? Which do you consider preferable? The Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines utilitarianism as the system of thought which states that the best action or decision in a particular situation is the one which most benefits the most people. This is the main idea of the system of thought and it is from this the beliefs and opinions of John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873), Jeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832) and other early utilitarians were developed. Jeremy Bentham, a friend of J. S. Mills father and the mentor of J. S. Mill, is usually considered the founder of British utilitarianism. J. S. Mill adapted Benthams ideas and philosophies to†¦show more content†¦He spent much of his time engaged in intense study, sometimes eight to twelve hours a day and by his death he had written tens of thousands manuscripts on many subjects. In 1808 he met James Mill, John Stuart Mills father, who fully supported Benthams ideas on utilitarianism. Bentham founded a group of intellectual philosophers called the ‘Philosophic al Radicals, or simply the ‘Benthamites, of which James Mill became a prominent member along with David Ricardo, George Grote and John Austin. Bentham and James Mill founded the Westminster Review, which aimed to propagate Radical views and to oppose the Whig supporting Edinburgh Review and the Tory Quarterly Review. It was in this publication that much of J. S. Mills work was presented, although he also wrote for other newspapers and journals including the Morning Chronicle and Parliamentary History Review. By the 1820s Bentham had become a widely respected figure both in Britain and other parts of the world and many of his ideas continue to be at the centre of academic debate. Benthams work is still considered to be the true basis of the utilitarian philosophy. His most influential works, in terms of how much they influenced the Victorian reform, are An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), widely consideredShow MoreRelatedUtilitarianism : Bentham And Mill766 Words   |  4 PagesUtilitarianism: Bentham VS. Mill Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that holds the morally right course of action in any given situation is the course of which yields the greatest balance of benefits over harms. More specifically, utilitarianism’s core idea is that the effects of an action determine whether actions are morally right or wrong. Created with philosophies of Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), Utilitarianism began in England in the 19th Century. Bentham andRead MoreUtilitarianism Vs. Mill Utilitarianism1004 Words   |  5 Pagesanism: Bentham VS. Mill Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that holds the morally right course of action in any given situation is the course of which yields the greatest balance of benefits over harms. More specifically, utilitarianism’s core idea is that the effects of an action determine whether actions are morally right or wrong. Created with the philosophies of Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), Utilitarianism began in England in the 19th Century. BenthamRead MoreAn Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation by Jeremey Bentham.1026 Words   |  5 Pagesis generally considered a moral theory that was found by Jeremey Bentham, a 19th century English philosopher and a social reformer. In 1923, he wrote a book called An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Bentham idea was to understand the concept of happiness and that it is the definitive goal to all human beings. Bentham believes in a principle in which human s should be motivated by pain and pleasure, Bentham said in his book, â€Å"Nature has placed mankind under the governanceRead MoreA Decent Job At Separating Religion From Morality1405 Words   |  6 Pageskind of consequentialism Mills and Bentham use. Morals can be dependent of an individual’s preferences depending on the individual’s motives behind their actions. If one is religiously motivated to be moral, and fears the consequences if they are not moral, then they are not going off of their individual preferences. Those who decide what they want to do based off of their own pleasures, make moral decisions based on their own interests and preferences. Mill and Bentham, Aristotle, and Kant all haveRead MoreJohn Locke And Thomas Jefferson Essay1478 Words   |  6 Pagesagreements are imposed. Jefferson and Locke both support the notion of individuals having the responsibility to manage other issues by themselves without the interference of the government (Heywood 2014a, p.44-45). Acknowledged by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill, utilitarianism is an ethical philosophy linked to human nature. Both of these influential liberalists deemed the notion of natural rights as an illogical and unrealistic explanation of human nature. They promoted that humans were motivatedRead More Comparing the Utility of Bentham and Mill Essay1927 Words   |  8 PagesComparing the Utility of Bentham and Mill utility \U*tili*ty\, n. [OE. utilite, F. utilit[e], L. utilitas, fr. utilis useful. See Utile.] †¦ 3. Happiness; the greatest good, or happiness, of the greatest number, -- the foundation of utilitarianism. --J. S. Mill. Syn: Usefulness; advantageous; benefit; profit; avail; service. (www.dictionary.com) One of the major players in ethical theories has long been the concept of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism states that in generalRead MoreMoral Theories Of Utilitarianism And Deontological Ethics1266 Words   |  6 Pagesspecifying and justifying moral principles. Utilitarianism has been clarified by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Bentham proposed that actions are based upon the consequences (Moreland, 2009), and ongoing work on his theory will help in providing grounds for legal actions. His ideas regarding every human keeping his interests above the interests of others, were further worked by Mill (Sweet, n.d). Utilitarianism tries to improve the moral state of the world for as manyRead MoreCompare Utilitarianism with the religion that you have studiedUtilitarianism VS Christianity684 Words   |  3 Pagesthe religion that you have studied Utilitarianism VS Christianity BASIC MAXIM – â€Å"THE GREATEST HAPPINESS FOR THE GREATEST NUMBER† JEREMY BENTHAM – Act Utilitarianism (each action should be judged on its ability to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number) - Devised principle of utility - Established a hedonic calculus to measure pleasure/pain brought about by each action. JOHN STUART MILL – Rule Utilitarianism (rules should be formulated firstRead MoreJeremy Bentham And John Stuart Mills Mill On Utilitarianism872 Words   |  4 PagesMill on Utilitarianism â€Å"The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (Utilitarianism, Mill). This theory of Utilitarianism was generated by the original Utilitarians, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Mill says: â€Å"Happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privationRead MoreEssay about Utilitarianism and Happiness845 Words   |  4 Pagesutility (pleasure or happiness).it looks at the consequence of an action as to whether the outcome is good to the majority of people affected by it. According to Bentham, utilitarianism is the greatest happiness or greatest felicity principle. There are many types of this theory which include act vs. rule, two level, motive, negative and average vs. total. (Clifford G., John C. 2009) In act utilitarianism, when people have to make choices, they should consider the consequences of each choice and then choose

Hand Hygiene Campaign Plan

Question: Discuss about theHand Hygiene Campaign Plan. Answer: Introduction Healthcare-acquired infections have been on the rise over the past years. The prevalence of the healthcare-acquired infections has attracted the attention of several stakeholders including patients, governments, and investors. Therefore, there is a great necessity for the implementation of hand hygiene programs in the hospitals. The hand hygiene campaign will be implemented in the Sandringham Nursing Home upon approval to prevent the infections such as flu and Castro that are prevalent in the hospital. To implement the program, several factors have to be addressed as discussed in this paper. Context The hand hygiene campaign will be set in Sandringham Nursing Home. Since it is a critical camping that requires the participation of all the staff members and the patients, the facility will be provided with the necessary equipment and preparation. The provision of alcohol-based hand rub and soap/water, communication materials, and hand hygiene training session will be prioritised in the creation of the campaign (Salmon et al., 2011). The programs will involve all the staff members of the facility as well as the patients that visit the hospital for treatment. Several socioeconomic factors affect hand hygiene in the clinical setup. One of the major factors influencing the hand hygiene campaign is the professional category of the individual staff. Studies show that physicians are less likely to comply with the campaign as compared to the nurses (Lau, 2012, p.21). The age of the people involved in the campaign also played a critical role in determining the compliance to the campaign. Research shows that people between 31 and 40 years washed their hands more regularly that those between 21 and 30 years (Lau, 2012, p.21). Other social factors that affect the hand hygiene campaign include gender, behaviour, hand irritation and dryness, awareness of the program and perception of being a model (Lau, 2012). Target Audience The target audience of the hand hygiene campaign will be the care workers of Sandringham Nursing Home. The reason for picking this target audience is their attributes that affect the effectiveness of the program. One of the essential features that make them the primary target audience is their tendency to have one-on-one contact with patients and other colleagues. The contact can determine whether they will transmit the pathogens that cause infection or not (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2013). Therefore, it is important to consider their activities to protect their clients as well their colleagues and themselves. Another characteristic that qualifies them to be the primary target audience is their leadership role in the health care. The reason for this claim is that they can act as role models to the patients and they can guide them as well. As a result, their advocacies will be taken well by the patients because of their position. Also, their vulnerability to the pathogens makes them the target audience (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2013). Caregivers are usually exposed to pathogens during their work, and this makes them have a high possibility of getting an infection from the patients and other equipment in the clinic. The other characteristic that makes them the target audience is because they are knowledgeable. Caregivers understand the need for hand hygiene because they know about the prevalences of the healthcare-acquired infections. Their knowledge helps to make the program efficient because it will also influence their attitudes in a positive manner (Nabavi et al., 2 015). Justification Health care-related diseases are increasingly attracting the attention of patients, authorities, and other stakeholders.. The reason for this attention is the fact these diseases are preventable. However, adherence to strict hand hygiene practices can significantly reduce the prevalence of health care infections. The reason for this claim is that the transmission of pathogens in the medical occurrence through direct and indirect contact, air, droplets, and other conventional vehicles (World Health Organization, 2009, p. 5). Therefore, this shows there is a great need for the hand hygiene campaign to help reduce the prevalence of the hospital-acquired infections. Besides, the issue of hospital-acquired infections affects many countries. According to the study by Russo et al. (2015), 12-32% of the hospital-acquired infections lead to death. Besides, it is estimated that more than 175000 hospital acquired infections occur every year in Australia (Russo et al., 2015, p. 38). The high prevalence of healthcare infections is attributed to the practices of the care workers. They include the inappropriate use of invasive devices and antibiotics, complicated procedures that are dangerous, and insufficient use of standard and isolation procedures (World Health Organization, n.d., p. 2-3). Because the causes are controllable by the care workers, there is the need to intervene by implementing the programming. Goals of the Campaign The hand hygiene camping will be put in place to achieve two primary goals. The first goal will be to keep away the infectious diseases that might break out at any time. The spread of infection will be prevented because hand washing is one of the best ways to stops the spreading of germs (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). Besides, the hand-washing practice will complement other sanitation processes in the health care. For instance, the physician will support hygiene when their hands are clean during their practise and handling of sterilised equipment in the clinic. As a result, the spread of pathogens during the contact with patients and other colleagues will be limited. The second objective of the campaign will be to promote the health of the residents of the nursing home. Clean hands will reduce the possibility of movement of pathogens from the infected areas and materials to healthy individuals. As a consequence, the residents of the nursing home will continue to enjoy good health. In addition, they will not be infected with flu and Castro the major illnesses that have been affecting patients and staff members of Sandringham Nursing Home. Other goals that the campaign hopes to achieve is a culture of hand washing caregivers that can influence the patients in positive manners so that they embrace hand washing practices as well. Content of the Campaign The program will consist of the formation of the hand hygiene project team. Through the selection of the team, the hospital will show its commitment and support for the hand hygiene program through interest, participation, and reporting of the proceeding of the program. The identification of key members from the nursing home will ensure that success of the program by engaging the non-clinical and clinical staff to support the project (Grayson et al., 2013, p.51). The other component of the hand hygiene program will be the description of the program. The program description will clarify the elements of the program and communicate the expected outcomes of the program to the target group. As a result, it will enhance the focus on the evaluation of the most critical questions. The components of the complete program information include demand, target, results, actions, products, supplies, and the relevance of actions and the results (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011, p. 21). The other component of the hand hygiene campaign will be the promotion of hygiene (Curtis, 2005). It will involve starting by targeting few risk methods. The reason for this strategy is the fact that people find it difficult to change habits. The promotion will also involve identifying a specific target audience, in this case, the caregivers of the nursing home. It will also include the identification of the motives for the changed behaviours among the target audience and capitalising on them to ensure the caregivers continue to embrace the practice. Other important aspects that will be considered in the promotion component will be planning, execution and monitoring of the program (Curtis, 2005). Another critical component of the hand hygiene program will be the sustaining of the hand hygiene program (Chassin et al., 2015). The cause for this is the fact that many caregivers may comply with the program in the initial stages of the implementation and start dropping the practices with time. The leading causes of noncompliance with the hand hygiene program include the poor location of hand rub dispensers, empty dispensers, inadequate training of staff, and the culture of the hospital (Chassin et al., 2015, p. 7). Therefore, the sustaining of the program will include addressing such issues by intervening before they get out of control. However, it important to note that the sustainability of the program will be determined by the monitoring and evaluation of the program (Srigley et al., 2013). Therefore, to help sustain the program, surveillance and evaluation will be considered one of the contents of the campaign. The Structure of the Campaign to meet the Goal The campaign will be designed in a manner that will support the achievement of the various goals. The first goal is to keep away the pathogens that cause the infections. As a result, the program will be implemented in phases. The first step will be to offer health education to the caregivers on the issues hand hygiene. The health education will be carried out in a continuous manner that will be offered once in a month. However, the first session will take approximately a week to ensure that the caregivers get the best out of the session. The second phase will be identifying the best source for the equipment that will be cost-effective. After identifying the various suppliers, the equipment will be purchased to support the program. The program will continue by setting up the necessary equipment to support the program. The kit includes water tanks, taps, soaps, and water in the various stations that the physicians and nurses work. The installation of the equipment will take about a wee k to complete. After setting up the equipment and starting the program, the caregivers will be provided with printed materials that will have the guidelines on the effective ways of washing the hands and the benefits of the practice as well. Also, to make sure that they embrace the practice, the printed materials can have sections that allow them to check whenever they wash their hands. However, they have to be encouraged to be honest whenever they check the parts. Implementing this will help to achieve the goals of the campaign in a successful manner. Resource of the campaign Are you about to touch a patient? Are you about to perform aseptic procedure? Were you exposed to body fluid? Are you from touching a patient? Are you from touching patient surrounding? THEN WASH YOUR HANDS WITH SOAP AND WATER Evaluating Effectiveness of the Campaign The hand hygiene program has to be assessed to ensure that the activities are delivered as planned and help in tracking the progress, and offer accountability. Therefore, it is important that the SMART indicator is applied to identify the status of the program as suggested by Freeman and Dreibelbis (2015). The SMART index is an acronym composed of five terms. The first letter stands for specific meaning that the program has to reflect the expected information from the summary of the narrative. The second letter M stands for measurable to show that the program has to be quantifiable and achievable. The third letter is A, which means attributable in that the changes have to be because of the program. The fourth letter ids R that means the program has to be realistic regarding being reasonable and profitable. It also has to be time-bound, in which it would determine the period of the program (Freeman and Dreibelbis, 2015). Potential Impact The hand hygiene campaign will have significant impacts on the relevant stakeholders. A good example of the implications of the hand hygiene practices is patient satisfaction. Studies show that patients are satisfied with the services of the health facilities when they see the caregivers wash their hands (Samuel et al., 2005). The compliance of the caregiver to the hand hygiene program increased patient satisfaction and feedback as well. For instance, most suggest that health education to patients and their family members, regular supervision of health workers, and provision of moral support for patients will improve health service care (Samuel et al., 2005) In New Zealand, the District Health Boards (DHBs) realised many benefits from the programs. The DHBs were able to hit their targets, and the comparison of the results with other DHBs encouraged them to embrace the programs more. As a result, the management of the DHBs was motivated by the success of the program making them prioritise the local program and give them the necessary resources (Freeman et al., 2016). The generation of support by the communities from the staff and management helped to improve the performance of the various district health boards. References Chassin, M., Mayer, C., Nether, K. (2015). Improving Hand Hygiene at Eight Hospitals in the United States by Targeting Specific Causes of Noncompliance. The Joint Commission Journal On Quality And Patient Safety, 41(1). Curtis, V. (2005). WELL - Resource Centre Network for Water, Sanitation and Environmental Health. Lboro.ac.uk. Retrieved 1 November 2016, from https://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/hp.htm Freeman, J., Dawson, L., Jowitt, D., White, M., Callard, H., Sieczkowski, C. et al. (2016). The impact of the Hand Hygiene New Zealand programme on hand hygiene practices in New Zealands public hospitals - New Zealand Medical Journal. The New Zealand Medical Journal. Retrieved 31 October 2016, from https://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/read-the-journal/all-issues/2010-2019/2016/vol-129-no-1443-14-october-2016/7035 Freeman, M. Dreibelbis, R. (2015). Design, Delivery and Monitoring and Evaluation for Handwashing with Soap Programs: Student Curriculu m. Lecture, EMORY University. Grayson, M., Russo, P., Ryan, K., Havers, S., Heard, K. (2013). 5 Moments of Hnad Hygiene (3rd ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. Lau, C. (2012). Factors A ffecting Hand Hygiene C ompli ance in Intensive Care Units: A Systematic R eview (MPH). The University of Hong Kong. Nabavi, M., Alavi-Moghaddam, M., Gachkar, L., Moeinian, M. (2015). Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Study on Hand Hygiene Among Imam Hossein Hospitals Residents in 2013. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, 17(10). Occupational Safety and Health Administration,. (2013). Worker Safety in Your Hospital: Know the Facts. Know the Facts. Russo, P., Cheng, A., Richards, M., Graves, N., Hall, L. (2015). Healthcare-associated infections in Australia: time for national surveillance. Australian Health Review, 39(1), 37. Salmon, S., Nguyen, V., McLaws, M., Pittet, D., Kilpatrick, C., Le, T., Truong, A. (2011). Hand hygiene campaigns in a low resource context: a Vietnam perspective. BMC Proc, 5(Suppl 6), O22. https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1753-6561-5-s6-o22 Samuel, R., Almedom, A., Hagos, G., Albin, S., Mutungi, A. (2005). Promotion of handwashing as a measure of quality of care and prevention of hospital- acquired infections in Eritrea: The Keren study. Afr Health Sci, 5(1), 4-13. Srigley, J., Lightfoot, D., Fernie, G., Gardam, M., Muller, M. (2013). Hand hygiene monitoring technology: protocol for a systematic review. Systematic Reviews, 2(1). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Introduction to program evaluation for public health programs: A self-study guide. Office of the Director, Office of Strategy and Innovation. Atlanta,GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,2011. Wash Your Hands. (2016). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 31 October 2016, from https://www.cdc.gov/features/handwashing/ World Health Organization,. (2009). WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: a Summary (p. 5). Geneva: World Health Organization. World Helath Orhanization,. Health care-associated infections FACT SHEET (pp. 2-3). Geneva: World Helath Orhanization.

Asylums in Massachusetts McLean and Northampton Essay Example

Asylums in Massachusetts: McLean and Northampton Paper Abstract Asylums such as The McLean Asylum for the Insane located in Boston, The Worcester Lunatic Asylum, and The Northampton Lunatic Hospital have been around for many years. Since the 1800s through the 1950s asylums have drastically changed in appearance, treatment, diagnosis and many aspects of the asylum such as the food patients are given to eat, and what work the patients get to do while being treated. The grounds and buildings of asylums have made significant improvements. Treatment has become more moral and orderly as the decades progress. Each asylum has different forms of recreation and work that the patients are allowed to do while being treated in the early asylums. Asylum Changes in Massachusetts The main and earliest asylums in Massachusetts in order include the McLean Asylum for the Insane located in Boston, The Worcester Lunatic Asylum, and The Northampton Lunatic Hospital. McLean Asylum for the Insane was founded in 1818 originally located in Somerville, then moved to Belmont, Massachusetts. In 1895. It is famous for its groundbreaking neuroscience research and for the large number of famous people who have been treated there such as Ray Charles and James Taylor. We will write a custom essay sample on Asylums in Massachusetts: McLean and Northampton specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Asylums in Massachusetts: McLean and Northampton specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Asylums in Massachusetts: McLean and Northampton specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This asylum was the first psychiatric hospital In the U. S to make sure it had basic clinical laboratories. The hospital studied biological factors in mental illness patients. The McLean Asylum was also a division of the Massachusetts General Hospital and followed the Quaker principles of moral treatment. The Worcester Lunatic Asylum was founded in 1832 in Worcester, Massachusetts. It was the first of its kind in Massachusetts. During the first year that it was opened 164 patients were received. The Northampton Lunatic Hospital was founded in 1858 and located in Northampton, Massachusetts. This hospital was later added to the National Register of Historic Places. The Northampton Lunatic Hospital and Worcester Lunatic Asylum were both part of the Kirkbride Plan. This plan was a 19th century building style that was put into effect for many asylums. There have been many improvements since the 1800’s until the 1950’s in buildings and grounds, diagnoses, demographics including leisure, work, food, and patient treatment in all of these asylums in Massachusetts. Previous to the 1800s, patients suffering from mental illness were hidden and housed in jails before asylums. Benjamin Rush, also known as â€Å"The Father of American Psychiatry. † contributed a great amount to the treatment of patients. Patients were restrained to Benjamin Rush chairs; His treatment methods also included bleeding, purging, and hot and cold baths. (Ozarin, L, 2006). 1800s: Buildings Grounds The Worcester Lunatic Asylum consists of a center building and two wings, the basement is designed for storerooms, a kitchen and laundry room. Pipes have been laid for water supply. The buildings were plain, strong and made of brick with a zinc roof. The buildings had separate apartments for patients, which were warmed in winter and highly ventilated. They had rooms for tenants as well as cooking establishments. For the grounds, excavation and stoning for the cellar done as well as construction of a road. High fences were put up to separate the different yards. (Massachusetts General Court Senate, 1837). Recreation Patients are encouraged to take exercise in the farms available in the grounds for them. They are allowed to roam in the carpenters’ shop, walk in the gardens, take excursions, and participate in in-door games as well as other forms of entertainment. American Psychiatric Association, 1895). Treatment Bloodletting was not always used in treating the insane patients (American Psychiatric Association, 1895). At the Worcester Lunatic Asylum, In terms of system of treatment, employees of the asylum need to pay special attention to cleanliness, bodily health of patients, clean air and suitable diet. Moral treatment wa s used and highly recognized, they used to believe that humanity is the law of love. (Massachusetts General Court Senate, 1837). Patients are examined for cures yearly. The patients at Worcester have been more highly selected. Those considered â€Å"incurables† have no selection of diet and receive little medical treatment and nursing help. However they do require a substantial amount of food. 1850s Buildings Grounds In 1888, The Northampton Lunatic Hospital made many changes and improvements in their buildings and grounds. Yards of concrete walk have also been laid by the patient as well as excavating. for the animals were erected. The stable for cows and cattle are now in the basement. The barns were built because the demand in milk increased from the incoming amount of patients being admitted to the hospital. A cold storage building was added as well, this storage building mostly containing apples, potatoes, dairy products and vegetables. In terms of improvement, the addition to the south wing of the hospital was worked on. There was a high need for the addition because of toilet and bath purposes. A spacious pavilion with a large fireplace mainly for the use of the patients was constructed on the hospital grounds. This building was a gift of Miss Martha Eastman of Amherst. Many of the patients used the buildings and grounds for a temporary home, an environment to work in and for recreational and exercise reasons. (Northhampton Lunatic Hospital, 1907). Many other improvements have been made such as men and women are now in separate comfortable quarters in their own buildings. The laundry room is now much more capacious and modern. The kitchen departments were now doubled in size. The interior of the female wing had been rebuilt. The wing has larger windows for light as well as new wire-lath ceilings that are protective from fires. A new chapel was constructed; it would be two and a half times larger than the one they currently had. Treatment In terms of treatment, Most of the patients, eighty-two percent, are considered to be incurable Taking the average of the patients that now present themselves in Massachusetts, eighteen percent are supposed to be curable, and need active treatment, and eighty-two percent, incurable, and require principally general management and soothing custodial guardianship. It is believed that moral and medical treatment is essential. (Jarvis, E. 1855). Food At The Northampton Lunatic Hospital, the sleeping, eating, personal hygiene, exercise, recreation and occupation routines are highly ordered and monitored. Private patients get to eat from a larger variety of food. The patients are served bread, cereals, cheese, eggs, fruit, meats, beans, tea, coffee, and vegetables with their meals. (Northampton Lunatic Hospital, 1907). In another example, if the food is not considered ‘good’ many patients will be come angry or harder to control and manage. The patients also require good attention and monitoring from the hospital’s employees. Jarvis, E. 1855). Work At The Northampton Lunatic Hospital, patients help out in areas such as in the kitchen, sewing, laundry, carpentry shops, painting, masonry, electricity work, plumbing and in the gardens barns and stables. The patients make brooms, tin ware, clothing, mattresses, and bedding and upholster chairs. These activity are mostly carried out in the industrial room, wards, thei r activities have even been in exhibits at the hospital for everyone to see. The work men and women do for the asylum and during their off hours are much different. Men were allowed to work in the farms, do garden work, grading, and fencing. For women, it was normal to do household work, knit slippers, stockings, making rugs, basketry, and gardening as well. Employees of the asylum are supposed to learn how to do the work and teach the patients the correct ways before the patients are expected to do it. (Northampton Lunatic Hospital 1907). These activities are carried out for the main purpose of giving the patients a type of therapy, many are much more happier because they are given work which makes the idea a success. 1900s Buildings Grounds Since the 1900s, many more improvements and changes have been made in the buildings and grounds. For example for the Northampton Lunatic Hospital in 1910, the buildings were remodeled and many additions were made. The â€Å"Day Barn† had been remodeled to help accommodate 30 calves and the basement floor was mainly to house the 40 steers. Eight acres of land was cleared, plowed, and fenced for the farm. The infirmary building for women was only one story high. Passageways between the buildings on each floor were necessary. A sunroom on each floor was also being provided. Cement walks from the highway up until the entrance of the hospital have been laid making accessibility easier for patients. (Hurd, Drewry, Dewey, Pilgram, Blumer, 1916). A new kitchen was built; it was now big enough for the employees to cook food for a larger amount of patients. Is it well ventilated, and has all the modern improvements. There is an up to date butcher’s room, where the meat is received and cut up. The food, when cooked, is carried on cars through passages in the basement then passed to the ward where the food is then set up in the dining halls. In 1898, progressive changes and additions have been made. A new building to accommodate the heating plant, machine shop, and carpenter shop, made room for enlarged kitchens, sewing and mending room, and above them a beautiful assembly hall for religious services and for amusements. The old chapel’s space was now used as a small laboratory, an operating room and library on the second floor. There was also a gymnasium added mostly for the use of recreation for the patients. (Hurd, Drewry, Dewey, Pilgram, Blumer, 1916). Windows have been enlarged, new heating; ventilating and lighting systems were installed. In 1900 a cold storage plant was installed where eggs, beef and other foods could be stored. A new stable for the carriage horses was built as well. In 1903, a new barn was built, accommodating 70 cows, 14 oxen and other animals. In 1911, a reception building and infirmary for women patients was built, another similar building was built for the men in 1905. Later in 1911, a new laundry room was built, in 1914 a fire pump house and a stable for the horses was built. Two new buildings were erected for the purposes of entertainment and recreation of the patients. There is an operating building, which includes a surgical ward, operating rooms, rooms for general diagnosis, anesthetizing, and for instruments. In another example, the grounds at the Worcester Insane Asylum were growing more and more attractive. Young trees had been planted; many patients work about the grounds, and receive great benefits from the side jobs. The work not only helps the patients but also helps the attractiveness of the grounds. Recreation Patients were allowed to use the bowling alleys, billiard rooms inside a clubhouse. For the women there is a pavilion. There are weekly moving picture and musical entertainment shown to the patients. There are religious services and occasional dances offered as well. The patients show appreciation by wearing better clothing, which helps establish the improvement of living conditions. At the McLean Asylum, patients were allowed to do arts and crafts while they were institutionalized. (Stein Cutler, 2001). Food For several years a dietician has had general overviewt of the foods and their preparation. Each day’s food distribution is arranged. Foods are prescribed for the weak and the sick and are specially prepared for their needs. An entire new diet is prepared every two weeks. The food distributed mostly consists of tea, coffee, milk cheese, resins, cereals, canned goods, peaches, berries, vegetables, eggs and other dairy products. (Worcester State Hospital, 1899). Treatment The McLean Asylum was changed to the Mclean Hospital, in 1892, which was symbolizing the philosophy in the therapeutic physician-patient relationship for moral treatment. It is a rule of the hospital that treatments consists of a generally quick reduction in the amount of alcohol or drugs used, depending mostly on the patient’s condition. Hydrotherapy is used when possible to improve the patient’s physical and mental health. The following are considered part of a patient’s routine everyday; regular habit, discipline, work, eating, recreation and visiting their physician. When a patient is admitted, they are received by a doctor, then bathed, fed and put to bed. Preliminary history is checked and presented within two weeks and diagnosis is then made. Bragg, T. Cohen, B, 2007). Many other examinations are done such as staining slides, bacteriological by culture, preparation of vaccines are all employed when indicated either in diagnosis or treatment. At the McLean Asylum in 1880, chloral hydrate was given as one of the drugs as well as opium and morphine. Cannabis indica was given to some older patients who were suffering from dist ress or melancholia. There was also the use of hypnotics to treat patients. At the Mclean Asylum in 1900, occupational therapy and other mental health professions came into existence. This era was also known as the occupational therapy and the mental hygiene movement. This movement was an effort to bring progressive change in the care of those with mental illnesses. An important factor that changed the course of psychiatry from the 1900s to 1950s was psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. The Electric Convulsive Therapy was another new form of treatment rising. (Stein Cutler, 2001). Work Patients are allowed to do certain labor and work tasks such as carpentry, painting, plumbing, laundry, baking, and shoe repairing. These tasks give the patients something to do while keeping them occupied. By doing these tasks, they are helping the hospital enormously. It was believed that the work patients do at the McLean Asylum must be interesting, it should have some usefulness to it, it should be carried on with other patients and encouragement should be given to the workers. (Stein Cutler, 2001). Demographics In 1900, there were a total of 482 patients, 240 men and 242 women at the Worcester Insane Asylum. During this time many of the patients were suffering from dementia and were being actively treated for it. 950s Buildings Grounds During the 1960s, Northampton State Hospital housed 2,657 patients. Since 1890, state mental institutions were now being turned into old-age homes. More than half of the population consisted of 65 year olds or older. Most of the patients had no one else to care for him or her, so they were sent to the hospitals. Northampton was too big and hard to tear down since it was made of stone. It had asbestos-coated pipes fitted in the 1950s. Radical changes were going on in this period of time for asylums, many became much more custodial. (Levin, A. 005) At the McLean Asylum, a new library and cafeteria were erected as well as many expansions to the research laboratories. The McLean Hospital was transforming into the illusion of a country club, a much more pleasant environment. The buildings were now separated into floors I, II, and III. These three levels were a series of graded behavioral institutions. â€Å"I† was for the lowest-disturbing patients; â€Å"III† was for the highest-disturbing patients. (Pressman, J. 1998). Treatment During this time, psychiatric drugs like chlorpromazine were introduced to asylums and patients. Patients could now be treated on an outpatient basis, meaning they would not have been living in the asylums. This was very good improvement because now patients were not limited to being contained between walls and bars. Psychopharmacology was also introduced as well as Freudian therapy. Freudian therapy was the experiences of conscientious objectors who worked in asylums during World War II. This period was the beginning of the antipsychiatry movement. This movement helped promote community mental health centers, which would help steer the focus of mental health treatment away from the hospitals. (Levin, A. 2005). In the early 1950s, the McLean Asylum, now known as the McLean Hospital practiced lobotomies as a form of treatment. There was a new procedure called the ‘icepick’ procedure, which helped enable psychosurgery to be performed quicker and for outpatients. Patients were treated with shock therapy as well. Psychosurgery peaked in 1948, The McLean Asylum was also known as a psychotherapeutic hospital. Shock treatment was established and used. This was a form of ‘active treatment’ (Pressman, J. 1998). In 1953, Willis Bower tried to prove that the drug, chlorpromazine would be capable of influencing a course of psychiatric illness. He published a study, which he conducted at the McLean Asylum in the New England Journal of medicine on the sedative. After the article came out, this drug became adopted in the hospitals. Chlorpromazine started a new revolution in psychiatry, compared to the penicillin used in general medicine. It did not cure psychosis, however it did help eliminate some symptoms of schizophrenia. This drug helped patients live everyday lives. (Shorter, E. 1997) Diagnosis In 1952, there were one hundred patients at an average age of seventy-seven who were diagnosed as senile. Food The McLean Hospital during this time was able to serve quality food if the patients requested it. For example one patient did not like the lamb that was served, they wanted lobster, the hospital actually served the patient lobster instead. They treated the patient as if it was â€Å"Ritz Carlton† service. This hospital was recognized as having a hotel-like atmosphere, which the patients enjoyed. (Pressman, J. 1998). Recreation At the McLean Asylum environmental factors were important for patients and their activities they got to do. All patients at the asylum were allowed to be in the outdoors. Middle class and upper class patients were able to do different activities. Middle-class patients were allowed to read, and play games. Working-class patients were allowed to work on the farms and at the print shop. (Levin, A. 2005). Overall, The McLean Asylum for the Insane, The Worcester Lunatic Asylum, and The Northampton Lunatic Hospital all have gone through major changes in buildings and grounds, diagnoses, demographics including leisure, work, food, and patient treatment. After the 1800s period, many improvements in buildings were made, and extensions of the building were added. Barns, chapels, larger kitchens were added. Barns were very important because farm animals could now be housed on the grounds. The animals provided food and milk for the patient’s food supply. Repair has been made to the farm, new stables were added and new mangers made for the yard. Fencing was added all around the grounds. Pavilions were added for recreational use. Grounds were made more attractive; for example trees were planted by patients, this work gave the patients something to do as well. At the Northampton, a gymnasium was added for recreational purposes. Treatment in the asylums progressed and got significantly better as the decades went on. Moral treatment was highly recognized. In the beginning, many patients were considered ‘incurables’ more patients were also being admitted into the asylums since there was more room from the extensions and additions to the asylums. In the 1950s, lobotomies were now practiced. Psychopharmacology was also introduced as well as Freudian therapy. At all of the asylums, recreation and work was a part of the lives of the patients. Patients were allowed to do activities such as reading, walking around the grounds. Certain work patients were allowed to do consists of carpentry, painting, plumbing, laundry, baking, and shoe repairing, working in the farm, and sewing. The work not only occupied the patient’s time but also gave help to the buildings and grounds of the asylums. The farm work and food collected from the farms was then fed to the patients. This system was very useful and necessary. In 2007, the Worcester Lunatic Asylum and Northampton Lunatic Asylum were demolished. Both were also part of the Kirkbride plan, which referred to the improvements, made in the mid-19th century. The buildings were typically Victorian era style and larger. References: 1. Ozarin, L (2006). Diseases of the Mind: Highlights of American Psychiatry through 1900: U. S Library of Medicine. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/hmd/diseases/benjamin. html 2. Northampton Lunatic Hospital (1907). Annual report of the trustees of the Northampton Lunatic Hospital. 51 (21), 16-20. 3. Jarvis, E. (1855). Report on insanity and idiocy in Massachusetts by the commission on lunacy. Boston, MA: William White Association. 4. Massachusetts General Court Senate (1837). Reports and other documents relating to the State Lunatic Hospital at Worcester. Boston, MA: Dutton and Wentworth Printers 5. Hurd, H. , Drewry, W. , Dewey, R. , Pilgram, C. , Blumer, G. (1916) The institutional care of the insane in the United States and Canada, Volume 2, 666-668. 6. Worcester State Hospital. (1899) Annual report of the Trustees of the Worcester State Hospital, 67, 18-47. 7. American Psychiatric Association (1895). Proceedings of the American Medico: Psychological Association. Utica, N. Y: American Medico-Psychological Association. 8. Levin, A. (2005) Rational Buildings Designed to Calm the Disorderly Mind: Psychiatric News, 40 (17), 24-25. Retrieved by:http://psychnews. sychiatryonline. org/newsarticle. aspx? articleid=109282 9. Bragg, T. Cohen, B. (2007) From Asylum to Hospital to Psychiatric Health Care System: American Journal Psychiatry, 164: 883. 10. Stein, F Cutler, S. K (2001) Psychosocial occupational therapy: a holistic approach. University of South Dakota: Delmar Thomson Learning. 11. Pressman, J. D. (1998) Last Resort: Psychosurger y and the Limits of Medicine. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 12. Shorter, E. (1997) A history of psychiatry: from the era of the asylum to the age of Prozac. Canada: John Wiley Sons, Inc.

Sediment Core Analysis in Archaeology

Sediment Core Analysis in Archaeology Sediment cores are an extremely useful tool used in conjunction with archaeological studies. Basically, a geologist uses a long narrow metal (generally aluminum) tube to sample the soil deposits in the bottom of a lake or wetland. The soils are removed, dried, and analyzed in a laboratory. The reason sediment core analysis is interesting is because the bottoms of a lake or wetland are records of the silt and pollen and other objects and materials which have fallen into the lake over time. The lake water acts as both a sorting device and as a preservative  since the deposits fall in chronological order and (if not subject to dredging) are not normally otherwise disturbed by humans. So, a tube extended down into these sediments collects a sample of 2-5 inch diameter of undisturbed deposits which reflect changes over time. Sediment columns can be dated using AMS radiocarbon dates from tiny pieces of charcoal in the sediments. Pollen and phytoliths recovered from soils can provide data about the predominant climate; stable isotope analysis can suggest plant colony type dominance. Tiny artifacts such as micro-debitage can appear in soil columns. Identifying periods when the amount of soil deposited within a given time increases steeply can be an indication of increased erosion  after adjacent land was cleared. Sources and Studies Feller, Eric J., R. S. Anderson, and Peter A. Koehler 1997 Late Quaternary Paleoenvironments of the White River Plateau, Colorado, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 29(1):53-62. Head, Lesley 1989 Using palaeoecology to date Aboriginal fish-traps at Lake Condah, Victoria. Archaeology in Oceania 24:110-115. Horrocks, M., et al. 2004 Microbotanical remains reveal Polynesian agriculture and mixed cropping in early New Zealand. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 131:147-157. Kelso, Gerald K. 1994 Palynology in historical rural-landscape studies: Great Meadows, Pennsylvania. American Antiquity 59(2):359-372. Londoà ±o, Ana C. 2008 Pattern and rate of erosion inferred from Inca agricultural terraces in arid southern Peru. Geomorphology 99(1-4):13-25. Lupo, Liliana C., et al. 2006 Climate and human impact during the past 2000 years as recorded in the Lagunas de Yala, Jujuy, northwestern Argentina. Quaternary International 158:30–43. Tsartsidou, Georgia, Simcha Lev-Yadun, Nikos Efstratiou, and Steve Weiner 2008 Ethnoarchaeological study of phytolith assemblages from an agro-pastoral village in Northern Greece (Sarakini): development and application of a Phytolith Difference Index. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(3):600-613.

Medieval mysticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Medieval mysticism - Essay Example Christian mysticism had something to do with direct experience with the divine in form of a vision of, or sense of union with God. Meditation, prayer or ascetic discipline usually accompanies it. In general, mysticism is a direct and immediate experience of the sacred, or the knowledge derived from such an experience. The experience is immediate and overwhelming, detached from the common experience of reality and is self-validating, without need of further evidence or justification. Outside the experience itself, one is incapable of expressing or understanding its essence. It is important to note that mysticism is not the same as magic, clairvoyance, parapsychology or occultism. Mystics are people who practice or believe in mysticism. They usually see their mystical experience as part of a larger task meant to bring human transformation and not as the terminus of their efforts. In Europe, mysticism flourished especially in Germany, Italy, the Low Countries and England from mid 13th to mid 15th century. Such mysticisms of that time are the ones referred to as medieval mysticisms. However, there is variation in the dating of the edges of these periods depending on different scholars. One of the most important sources of medieval mysticism is Saint Augustine of Hippo. He was born in the city of Thagaste, Algeria, to a Catholic mother named Monica and he has contributed to the western philosophy by promoting argument by analogy. He is also the most important figure in the ancient western church that produced works of high spiritual quality. In Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, he is a doctor of the church known for his Christian mystical sermons and the patron of the Augustinian religious order. His ideas also influenced philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Blaise Pascal, and the reformation leaders such as Martin

Prenatal development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Prenatal development - Assignment Example The period of prenatal development is interesting because it is the actual manifestation of physical growth from nothingness to a real human. It is amazing how something about the organism changes every month until it turns into a fully matured baby. Teragotens are substances which may result in an abnormality of a fetus. These can be in the form alcohol, caffeine, drugs, diseases and lead, mercury or radiation. While mothers may be exposed to some of these things unintentionally, others have a choice of whether to pay attention to science or their personal beliefs or experiences and continue their usual alcohol or caffeine intake. The most important thing I learned among the five is the general risk factors. This is significant because these factors are very simple things but have a very big impact on the development of a new human being. Nutrition, stress and the mother’s age should be of utmost consideration when planning or having a baby. With this knowledge, I am able to appreciate everything my mother had done to keep herself and me healthy until I was born. Also, I would be able to use this knowledge in building my future family and whenever friends ask me for

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay

A Case Study Of The Code Switching Patterns English Language Essay The study investigates the use of Lithuanian and English and code-switching between the two in a family of Lithuanian-English bilinguals living in London. The data was collected by means of recording in the family home. The recording was then transcribed and analysed, allowing me to identify a number of features of the features of the language choice and code-switching patterns. These included convergence or divergence from the viewpoint of the previous speaker, lexical need, translation to allow for greater fluency in the conversation, trigger words and the perceived identity of the speaker. I conclude from these observations that code-switching can be seen as a versatile and fluid phenomenon which allows the speaker greater freedom of expression and performs a number of functions, both social and pragmatic. The speakers use their languages to This dissertation looks at bilingual conversations between family members in a family environment. The main focus of the work is the strategic use of code-switching. My particular interest is on how different members of the family use code-switching in order to express their national and individual identity and how this usage reflects their attitudes towards their languages. Theoretical background to the study: Bilingualism A fact frequently mentioned in bilingual studies is that over half the world is bilingual (Hoffmann 1991). However, patterns of individual language use within bilingual communities are diverse and it has been claimed that bilingualism is more common in unilingual countries (Mackey 1970). Lithuania has a high level of bilingualism with over 70% of the residents being multilingual (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/). Language use is influenced by social circumstances, especially with regard to the communicative situation in which the language is employed. Bilingualism, however, is not automatically sustained without regular exchanges in the pertinent languages. (Ervin-Tripp and Reyes 2005). Languages amongst second generation immigrants seem to be maintained in strong correlation to the amount of exposure within the home. Mackey Bilingualism Reader page 35. The level of language proficiency and performance are affected by the intention of the speaker and the kinds of actions taken in order to satisfy that function. The attitude of a speaker towards his or her language is a major factor in their language behaviour. A speaker who feels ashamed of his or her level of a particular language may use this less frequently or only use it in certain company. Certain languages carry political associations and can be unpopular for this reason -for example, Russian was unpopular in many countries in the Soviet Union. Bilingual immigrant children may associate their second language with that of their friends and social life and have a more positive outlook towards this (Lambert et al 1958 see Bilingualism a reader for ref). Code-switching Code-switching is remarkably common in language contact situations, especially within plurilingual societies. The majority of code-switching studies have concentrated on the social motivation behind the switches (e.g. Myers-Scotton 1993) in addition to grammatical or syntactical constraints or psychological mechanism (e.g. Grosjean 2001). Alternation between languages seems to depend on a number of factors., including the conversational topic of the speaker, the person to whom he or she is speaking and the level of tension which he or she feels when taking part in the conversation for example when very tired, nervous, or angry. Myers Scotton (1993) amongst others has pointed out that bilinguals use code-switching in order to make the greatest use of their linguistic repertoire. For many bilinguals this is a part of their daily life. In multilingual societies this would take place in a variety of contexts, but in the UK this is most commonly found at home in a family environment. For this reason the study focuses on a family conversation. Age is a major factor for consideration in the study of language use within a family. For younger immigrants bilingualism can be a short process which can lead to the second language overtaking the first if home is the only environment in which the first language is utilised. (Tits 1959 see bilingualism reader for ref). The study of younger immigrants is specialised as their stability in their first language needs to be considered whereas with older immigrants their first language is far more fixed and stable. 1.1.2 Lithuania and the Lithuanian language According to the Office for National Statistics (www.statistics.gov.uk), an estimated 74,000 Lithuanians lived in the UK in 2010. Lithuania became independent from the Soviet Union in 1990 and became a member of NATO and the European Union in spring 2004. Since Lithuanian independence many changes have taken place and popular culture is highly influenced by Western Europe and the USA. An important change regarding language is that many young people are now able to speak English or another foreign language, and have little knowledge of the Russian language. In Soviet times the very large majority of the population was fluent in Russian. More than 70% of Lithuanians living in Lithuania in September 2012 are bi- or multilingual. (http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/) Russian is still the most widely spoken second language with English now the second. (Statistics Lithuania 2008). The total worldwide Lithuanian-speaking population is estimated at about 3,100,000 (2011, http://www.indexmundi.com/lithuania/demographics_profile.html), about 2.9 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 200,000 abroad (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language). The Lithuanian language is a Baltic language which has been influenced by both Russian and Finnish, but retains many pure features of archaic Indo-European. The Russian language was particularly influential during the period of Soviet rule. Lithuanian is an inflectional language with seven cases and is gendered. The Lithuanian alphabet consists of 32 letters in the Latin alphabet using diacritical marks. There are two main dialects which differ significantly from each other: AukÃ…Â ¡taiÄ iÃ…Â ³ (AukÃ…Â ¡taitian, Highland Lithuanian) and Ã…Â ½emaiÄ iÃ…Â ³/Ã…Â ½emaitiu (Samogitian, Lowland Lithuanian). The family studied here speak standard or Highland Lithuanian. 1.1.3 Key terms Bilingualism Definitions of bilingualism vary greatly. Bloomfield (1933) describes it as: native-like control of two languages. However, this focus on the level of proficiency in each language does not refer to the use or function performed by the language. Definitions which are based on function take into account the fact that language is a communicative tool rather than an abstract entity. Weinreich (1953) describes bilingualism as: The practice of alternately using two languages. Els Oksaar (1983) takes function and proficiency into account in her definition of the ability of a person to use here and now two or more languages as a means of communication in most situations and to switch from one language to the other if necessary (p. 19). Hoffmann (1991) points out that bilingualism is relative, and although there have been many attempts to define it, none of these is equally valid. She suggests that a useful approach could be to form a bilingual profile for each individual, accounting for vari ables such as the language development and maintenance of the languages, their sequential relationship, the competence in each, functional aspects, linguistic features, attitudes and environmental circumstances. The term balanced bilingual is used to describe a speaker who has equal command of both languages. However, Fishman et al (1971) point out that this situation is rare. Bilinguals who are equally fluent in both languages (as measured by their facility and correctness overall) are rarely equally fluent in both languages about all possible topics; this phenomenon is invariably a reflection of the fact that societal allocation of functions is normally imbalanced and in complementary distribution rather than redundant (Fishman et al, 1971, in MacSwan, 1999: 30) . Code-switching Definitions of code-switching vary significantly between researchers. Code is generally used as a synonym of language, although there is some debate on this point, Jakobson distinguishing between the two terms, asserting that languages do not consist of codes, but rather contain them (Jakobson 1971). Some see code-switching as being the insertion of whole utterances in a non-dominant language between sentences (Dahl, Rice et al. 2010). Borrowing generally refers to the insertion of a word or phrase within a sentence while retaining the syntax of the matrix language. Code-mixing However, there is little evidence at present that there is a significant difference between these types, and many see the difference as best expressed in terms of a continuum (Clyne 2000). Jeanine Treffers-Daller (1994- linguistic c-s) points out that many researchers see a difference between instances of code-switching and transfer or interference both of these terms referring to the influence of one languag e on another. However, she argues that these can be seen as similar as they involve the occurrence of aspects of one language in a section of another language. In the current work, the term code-switching will be used in its broadest sense to refer to the use of two or more languages used within a conversation or utterance, whether this be inter- or intra-sententially, unless a particular term is used by another researcher cited here. Throughout this work I will refer to inter-sentential and intra-sentential code-switching switches which occur between sentences or within them respectively as originally defined by Polack (1980). Crossing (also language crossing or code-crossing) refers to the use of a language or variety which isnt generally thought to belong to the speaker (Rampton, 1997, in Auer 1998P. Auer (ed) 1997/98 Code-switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity (London: Routledge) Creolization is used here to mean the formation of a Creole language from the contact of a European language with a local language: http://oxforddictionaries.com Native speaker when used in this project refers to a person who has spoken the language in question from earliest childhood (http://oxforddictionaries.com). Rationale This is an ethnographic study using data obtained from naturally occurring speech of three bilinguals of differing levels of proficiency. The family were chosen as they are all first generation immigrants, bi- or tri-lingual and are integrated into British society while still retaining a sense of their Lithuanian identity through their visits to Lithuania and contact with Lithuanian friends and family. The mother, when collecting her son from school when he was about 5 years old, overheard him asking a friend: Did you know that I am half-Lithuanian? She then questioned him about why he thought he was only half Lithuanian when both his parents were Lithuanian. He answered that he was Lithuanian when he was at home because of his parents, but at school he was English because he spoke English there, and he knew he wasnt 100% Lithuanian, as he could not speak the language fluently. This biculturalism opens debate concerning the choice and use of language to broader issues such as identit y. Oksaar (1983) argues that an immigrants two languages usually perform distinct tasks and the distribution of the languages in relation to the cultural spheres may be a decisive factor for the immigrants degree of integration. This study aims to investigate how the level of proficiency in a language affects the code-switching patterns in this family and how the family members use their linguistic repertoire to express their identity as Lithuanian, English, or both. No attempt will be made in this work to examine grammatical restraints or features beyond a very basic level. Research Questions What are the language choices and code-switching patterns of the subjects in a family environment? Do the language choice and code-switching reflect on the proficiency level of the language used? What are the functional purposes of the code-switching? How are the individuals attitudes towards the two languages and their own identity reflected in their language behaviour? The first of these questions provides a general background on which the other questions are based. The second question relates the language choice and code-switching to the level of proficiency that the subjects have in the languages. Question 3 looks at the reasons behind the code-switching. Lastly, the final question examines if there is a relationship between the attitude of the individual and their language choices 1.4 Hypotheses That there is a correlation between the language choice and code-switching patterns of the speaker and their level of proficiency in that language. That the mother of the family, being the most balanced bilingual, will code-switch more frequently than the other two members of the family That the code-switching functions to facilitate understanding between all three members of the family and reflect their identities 1.5 Conclusion The structure of the paper is as follows: Chapter 1 has described the study and its aims. It has also given a brief summary of the key ideas which will be investigated and the terms which will be used throughout. The second chapter will review the literature which I feel is relevant and of interest to the present study. This will examine the perspectives on code-switching analysis, starting with the Rational Choice analysis. It will then examine Conversation Analysis as a tool for the analysis of code-switching data. Chapter 2 will also deal briefly with studies which look at the level of proficiency of the speakers and how this affects code-switching. The third chapter will describe the methodology used in the study including the research design issues and the positioning of the researcher. It will give an outline of the family background and history will then deal with the ethics, interviews and data collection which were carried out in order to conduct the research. A mention will also be made of the issues involved in data collection and the conventions used in the transcription as well as the methods used to analyse the data. Chapter 4 will look at the analysis of the data, dealing primarily with the research questions. It will examine the language choices of the subjects and how these choices reflect on the proficiency level of the participants in each language. It will then examine when the family code-switch when interacting and what the functional purposes of the code-switching appear to be. There will then be a discussion of how the language choices reflect the individuals attitudes towards the two languages. Chapter 5 concludes the study with a discussion of the implications of the findings and a summary of the research, looking at the limitations of the research and any further development required. Chapter 2 Review of relevant literature what about FAMILY studies and what is special about them? 2.1 Introduction QUOTATIONS ONE OR TWO PER PAGE In this chapter the literature concerned with the phenomenon of code-switching is examined to provide a conceptual framework. Studies have been carried out in this area from psycholinguistic, grammatical or sociolinguistic perspectives. This literature review will concentrate only on the sociolinguistic studies as these relate most closely to the research carried out. I will firstly consider the different perspectives on code-switching analysis Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages and Conversation Analysis. I will then examine studies dealing with the level of proficiency of the speaker and how this affects code-switching practices. I will also briefly investigate studies of bilingual children before concluding by linking these studies to the study carried out here. The last forty or fifty years have seen a profusion of research carried out into reasons for code-switching and the different manifestations of the phenomenon. Studies in this area can be conducted for their own sake, in order to demonstrate characteristic features of a language. Code-switching is also studied in order to look at grammatical features or constraints across languages or for cognitive processing purposes. In addition code-switching can investigate the ways in which identities, be these individual or group, can be formed and demonstrated. It can also give additional meaning to an utterance which cannot be attributed to the meaning of the sum of individual words (Gardner-Chloros 2009) Code-switching is a conversational tool requiring competence pragmatically and grammatically (Koppe and Meisel 1995). Reasons why code-switching takes place are varied and complex. It is assumed to be related to the situational parameters of conversational topic, participant roles or the speech event itself (Auer 1995). However, intra-sentential code-switching may serve the purpose of emphasis, quoting another person, or to indicate a change in the participant addressed. It can also be used to indicate convergence or divergence from the previous participants statement (Zhu 2008). Inter-sentential code-switching can be used to fill gaps in lexical knowledge or to for emphasis (Zentella 1997) or to ask or answer rhetorical questions among other reasons. 2.2 Perspectives on code-switching analysis It is generally recognised that code-switching is meaningful from a social perspective. There are two broad schools of thought as to how this meaning is brought about. The first of these sees the choice of language as having a meaning, in terms of identity, views and values (Gumperz 1982, Myers-Scotton 1993). The other approach sees meaning as coming from the code-switching itself, that is, from within the conversation, rather than being reliant on external factors. This second approach concentrates on the sequences used and is generally studied using Conversational Analysis techniques. Increasingly researchers are favouring this second approach, as although it is widely acknowledged that social factors can play a significant role, this is not straightforward and cannot be assumed a priori (Cashman 2005, Williams 2005). 2.2.1 Analyses based on the social connotations of the two languages Language can be seen in terms of a we-code and they-code (Gumperz (1982). The we-code normally denotes a minority language linked to informal circumstances used by an in-group. The main community language, linked to formal circumstances, is a they-code. Typically in families in which the parents are immigrants to the UK, the parents will see their community language or mother tongue as the we-code and English as the they-code. Their children, however, brought up in the UK, are likely to feel that English is their we-code and to prefer to use this. Gumperz (1982) sees code-switching as meaningful from a social identity perspective. He carried out a study in Norway examining the use of Ranamal a local dialect, and Bokmal the standard language variety. These shared many similarities but were considered by speakers to be distinct. This distinction was important in order for the varieties to fulfil social functions. The local dialect was used with family, and to express local cultural identity, while the more standard variety was used in education and in the media. Many people switched between these two varieties depending on the topic of the conversation for example, an enquiry about family might be made in Ranamal, while Bokmal might be used while discussing business. Zhu Hua (2008) points out that a large body of evidence now indicates that there is no simple, one-to-one association between language and social values (p.1800) In an investigation into diasporic Chinese families in the UK, she examined the connection between social communication and socio-cultural values, focusing on code-switching between generations in conflict talk situations in which the speakers adopt different opinions on a subject. There appeared to be strategic language choices and positioning by the speakers. It appeared that code-switching functioned to focus the interactions between the speakers particularly when negotiating power relationships. Speakers showed convergence or divergence with the previous speakers view depending on their language choice speakers answering in the language in which they were addressed were is likely to be showing convergence. Investigations into non-Western code-switching have found evidence refuting the idea of different languages being associated with different groups. Stroud (1998) looked at the use of Tok Pisin, a national language, and Taiap, spoken by a tiny minority. It was found that no particular domain, subject or speech variety was spoken about in one language only. Rational choice analyses start from the basic standpoint of Gumperz (1982). The Markedness Model of Myers-Scotton (1993) makes the assumption that one language variety is always unmarked in any situation and that social norms act as constraints to speakers. She studied African urban communities and saw a distinction between the theories of allocation, where language behaviour is affected by the structure of society, and interaction, in which a person makes a rational selection to achieve a specific purpose. The mother tongue of the Kenyans studied was used with others of the same ethnic background and appeared to be important in terms of identity. It was also used for assistance from other members of the same group. English was used at home by those more affluent economically as it was assumed that this would help the children with their school education. The markedness idea is further developed in the Rational Choice Model (Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai 2001), which asserts that an unm arked choice is one in which the speaker chooses his or her language according to the conventions of the social norms. These norms can dictate that code-switching is in itself the choice which is unmarked. The Markedness Model appears to regard monolingualism as the starting point or norm and disregards variation between languages (Blommaert and Meeuwis 1998). The idea of strategic code-switching is also criticised as many see code-switching as an unconscious occurrence (Woolard 2004). This Rational Choice Model was employed by Alfaraz (2009) in a study of the use of Spanish and English in the Catholic mass. Quantitative analysis revealed a more frequent use of English than Spanish during the service, making English apparently the unmarked choice. On closer analysis, however, it could be seen that Spanish was used for the ritualistic areas of the service, making this the unmarked choice. Alfaraz asserted that pragmatic meaning was not conveyed though the directionality of switching in the data. Instead, code-switching seemed to be used to emphasise contextual information equivalent to what in monolingual settings is conveyed through prosody or other syntactic or lexical processes (Gumperz 1982 p.98). An example of this is in the use of pauses, which when between code-switched passages were found to be almost two seconds shorter than those between monolingual passages in the data, pointing towards the switching being used as a reinforcement of the effect of the paus e. The Rational Choice Model assumes that choices are made between codes according to external values. However, more recent thinking about how meanings can be interpreted has asserted that they can be interpreted from the conversation itself without the necessity of relating to external norms. Li Wei (1998) argues that code-switching can be used to show the authoritative level of the speaker and their preference linguistically. 2.2.3 Conversational analyses of code-switching see Nilep interactional section Macro-sociolinguistic aspects of code-switching, while giving a useful insight, can never determine absolutely code-switching. Gumperz (1982) maintained that in order to define the functions of code-switching a close and detailed analysis of conversation is necessary. On the basis of this he identified a list of six functions (quotation marking, addressee specification, interjection, reiteration, message qualification, and personalization versus objectivization. This list has led on to many other similar attempts to identify a list of code-switching functions (Romaine 1989; Nishimura 1997; Zentella 1997). These lists are problematic, however, as there are often problems with definition, as Auer (1995) points out. Although these may provide some useful guidelines, they are inadequate as a complete answer to the functions that code-switching carries out. .Auer (1984) claims that bilingual interaction is susceptible to local methods of language negotiation and code choice and is autonomous at one level from the larger ideological and societal structures to which it are related. Conversational analyses of code-switching focus on the actual interactions and the fulfilment of interactional goals which take place between the speakers rather than on external factors. Li Wei (2005) regards Conversation Analysis as an extension of Rational Choice analyses, but seeking evidence from talk-in-interaction rather than from external knowledge of community structure and relations (p.375). Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai (2001) have criticised this approach for the emphasis on transcriptions techniques and lack of focus on motivational choices. Li Wei (2002) claims that the conversational analysis approach is often used without explicit reference to the reasons why, but that it can demonstrate the motivation and intentions of the speaker in addition to r evealing the process of generating ordered activity . Code-switching is commonly believed to be related to other manifestations of bilingual or multilingual behaviour rather than an isolated occurrence. Translanguaging space covers a diversity of practices including code-switching, code-mixing, crossing and creolization. Li Wei (2010) studied the multilingual practices of three Chinese undergraduate maths students resident in Britain through Moment Analysis. This aims to capture seemingly spur-of-the-moment performances and to establish their causes and results. Speakers seemed to express their identities and create their own social spaces through utilization of the linguistic resources available to them. Translanguaging space can be a reflection of an individuals identity and demonstrates the way individuals use their linguistic resources to create their own space, rather than responding to external factors. Various patterns of interactions can be analysed in sequential code-switching Auer (1995). These can involve both the interlocutors speaking in different languages to each other, for example one person speaking consistently in English while the other replies in Lithuanian. However, this often leads to one interlocutor beginning to use the other language and becomes a monolingual conversation. When this pattern is seen it can indicate the preference of language by a speaker. It can also show the level of competence in a language (usually the speaker is more competent in his or her preferred language). It could indicate language choice for a social reason. Reyes (2004) states that code-switching can be used to extend communicative competence in situations where a single language is not adequate. Milroy and Wei (1995) claim that interlocutors decide on a language and that code-switching occurs within this. This code-switching becomes interactional in that participants often choose to speak in the language which best suits their interlocutor (Milroy and Li Wei, 1995). Their study found that Chinese immigrants to the UK varied in their language practices according to age, with the older generation preferring to use their Chinese mother tongue, and the younger generation showing a preference for English. Code-switching within this appeared to be used for repetition and emphasis, clarification and confirmation, as well as making language repairs (this last only amongst the adults). Critiques of Conversation Analysis claim that a focus too closely on conversation as the starting point for analysis in addition to not allowing macro-sociolinguistic evidence can result in unsatisfactory analysis of non-Western language behaviour. [L]anguage use and patterns of code-switching both structure and are structured by indigenous cultural practices (Stroud 1998 p.322). 2.3 Code-switching and level of proficiency Code-switching has traditionally been seen as the result of a lack of competence in one of the languages, or a practice which is lazy or inhibits language learning. Bullock and Toribio (2009) state that it is .à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ perceived by the general public as indicative of language degeneration (Bullock and Toribio 2009 p.1). However, studies have shown that these viewpoints do not reflect the truth (Hughes, Shaunessy et al. 2006). By focusing on code-switching as a resourceful process, it is possible to see the ways in which languages are used for communication and to advance learning (Liebscher and Dailey-OCain 2005). Weinreich (1953) described an idealised bilingual speaker who would use both codes distinctly. However, Grosjean (1997) has asserted that neither language system of a bilingual can be fully deactivated. This implies that bilinguals generally differ in some way from monolinguals, even in their principal language. Even the concept of the native speaker is now being cha llenged by code-switching practices (Gardner-Chloros 2009). The issue of the level of proficiency of the speaker and the effect of this on code-switching has long been under debate. McClure (1977) noted that the use of code-switching changes with age. Younger children were seen to code-switch nouns whereas older ones switched phrases and sentences, thus indicating that there is a level of proficiency which must be reached for code-switching to take place. However, according to Myers-Scotton (1993), there is no clear level of proficiency that a speaker must obtain in a second language in order for code-switching to take place. Code-switching has been seen as a strategy to cope with deficiencies in one or both of the languages (MacSwan 1999). These deficiencies were previously referred to as semilingualism (Cummins and Miramonte, 1989, in MacSwan, 1999) and were thought of as causing low academic achievement in multilingual children (Milroy and Muysken 1995, Tokuhama-Espinosa 2003). However, Li Wei (2000) points out that the term was used for ethnic minorities and not for the speakers of mainstream languages. Poplack (1980) was critical of the term for the implication that the speakers are not fully literate, and the stigma involved for those it referred to. Romaine (1995) points out that: Although it is popularly believed by bilingual speakers themselves that they mix or borrow because they do not know the term in one language or another, it is often the case that switching occurs most often for items which people know and use in both languages. The bilingual just has a wider choice at least when he or she is speaking with bilingual speakers. In effect, the entire second language system is at the disposal of the code-switcher. (1995, p. 143) A study carried out by Valadez, MacSwan and Martà ­nez